Subpartition -density is not guaranteed by the Louvain algorithm. leiden_clsutering is distributed under a BSD 3-Clause License (see LICENSE). Google Scholar. Natl. For the Amazon, DBLP and Web UK networks, Louvain yields on average respectively 23%, 16% and 14% badly connected communities. Furthermore, by relying on a fast local move approach, the Leiden algorithm runs faster than the Louvain algorithm. Centre for Science and Technology Studies, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands, You can also search for this author in E 78, 046110, https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevE.78.046110 (2008). A number of iterations of the Leiden algorithm can be performed before the Louvain algorithm has finished its first iteration. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative. The phase one loop can be greatly accelerated by finding the nodes that have the potential to change community and only revisit those nodes. Based on this partition, an aggregate network is created (c). In general, Leiden is both faster than Louvain and finds better partitions. The minimum resolvable community size depends on the total size of the network and the degree of interconnectedness of the modules. (We implemented both algorithms in Java, available from https://github.com/CWTSLeiden/networkanalysis and deposited at Zenodo23. Data Eng. Leiden is faster than Louvain especially for larger networks. Nevertheless, depending on the relative strengths of the different connections, these nodes may still be optimally assigned to their current community. By moving these nodes, Louvain creates badly connected communities. The Leiden algorithm also takes advantage of the idea of speeding up the local moving of nodes16,17 and the idea of moving nodes to random neighbours18. Discov. Correspondence to For example, for the Web of Science network, the first iteration takes about 110120 seconds, while subsequent iterations require about 40 seconds. The aggregate network is created based on the partition \({{\mathscr{P}}}_{{\rm{refined}}}\). reviewed the manuscript. This will compute the Leiden clusters and add them to the Seurat Object Class. This commit does not belong to any branch on this repository, and may belong to a fork outside of the repository. In the case of the Louvain algorithm, after a stable iteration, all subsequent iterations will be stable as well. Article Empirical networks show a much richer and more complex structure. Mech. Publishers note: Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. In fact, by implementing the refinement phase in the right way, several attractive guarantees can be given for partitions produced by the Leiden algorithm. The property of -separation is also guaranteed by the Louvain algorithm. Are you sure you want to create this branch? Leiden is the most recent major development in this space, and highlighted a flaw in the original Louvain algorithm (Traag, Waltman, and Eck 2018). A partition of clusters as a vector of integers Examples The larger the increase in the quality function, the more likely a community is to be selected. We prove that the new algorithm is guaranteed to produce partitions in which all communities are internally connected. That is, one part of such an internally disconnected community can reach another part only through a path going outside the community. Scientific Reports (Sci Rep) Importantly, the first iteration of the Leiden algorithm is the most computationally intensive one, and subsequent iterations are faster. Thank you for visiting nature.com. Nodes 06 are in the same community. The count of badly connected communities also included disconnected communities. Rotta, R. & Noack, A. Multilevel local search algorithms for modularity clustering. import leidenalg as la import igraph as ig Example output. To elucidate the problem, we consider the example illustrated in Fig. Nonlin. ADS Article As discussed earlier, the Louvain algorithm does not guarantee connectivity. We applied the Louvain and the Leiden algorithm to exactly the same networks, using the same seed for the random number generator. When node 0 is moved to a different community, the red community becomes internally disconnected, as shown in (b). b, The elephant graph (in a) is clustered using the Leiden clustering algorithm 51 (resolution r = 0.5). If we move the node to a different community, we add to the rear of the queue all neighbours of the node that do not belong to the nodes new community and that are not yet in the queue. Note that the object for Seurat version 3 has changed. CPM does not suffer from this issue13. The Leiden algorithm consists of three phases: (1) local moving of nodes, (2) refinement of the partition and (3) aggregation of the network based on the refined partition, using the non-refined partition to create an initial partition for the aggregate network. One may expect that other nodes in the old community will then also be moved to other communities. This is similar to ideas proposed recently as pruning16 and in a slightly different form as prioritisation17. Subset optimality is the strongest guarantee that is provided by the Leiden algorithm. However, in the case of the Web of Science network, more than 5% of the communities are disconnected in the first iteration. 8, 207218, https://doi.org/10.17706/IJCEE.2016.8.3.207-218 (2016). We provide the full definitions of the properties as well as the mathematical proofs in SectionD of the Supplementary Information. We first applied the Scanpy pipeline, including its clustering method (Leiden clustering), on the PBMC dataset. However, the Louvain algorithm does not consider this possibility, since it considers only individual node movements. However, after all nodes have been visited once, Leiden visits only nodes whose neighbourhood has changed, whereas Louvain keeps visiting all nodes in the network. The Louvain algorithm is illustrated in Fig. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. With one exception (=0.2 and n=107), all results in Fig. However, as shown in this paper, the Louvain algorithm has a major shortcoming: the algorithm yields communities that may be arbitrarily badly connected. In the case of modularity, communities may have significant substructure both because of the resolution limit and because of the shortcomings of Louvain. Rev. The algorithm is described in pseudo-code in AlgorithmA.2 in SectionA of the Supplementary Information. J. As the use of clustering is highly depending on the biological question it makes sense to use several approaches and algorithms. Phys. Article MathSciNet Communities may even be internally disconnected. Contrary to what might be expected, iterating the Louvain algorithm aggravates the problem of badly connected communities, as we will also see in our experimental analysis. The increase in the percentage of disconnected communities is relatively limited for the Live Journal and Web of Science networks. Agglomerative Clustering: Also known as bottom-up approach or hierarchical agglomerative clustering (HAC). Article We therefore require a more principled solution, which we will introduce in the next section. Traag, Vincent, Ludo Waltman, and Nees Jan van Eck. The authors show that the total computational time for Louvain depends a lot on the number of phase one loops (loops during the first local moving stage). Algorithmics 16, 2.1, https://doi.org/10.1145/1963190.1970376 (2011). These steps are repeated until no further improvements can be made. When a disconnected community has become a node in an aggregate network, there are no more possibilities to split up the community. The horizontal axis indicates the cumulative time taken to obtain the quality indicated on the vertical axis. From Louvain to Leiden: Guaranteeing Well-Connected Communities, October. Use Git or checkout with SVN using the web URL. Another important difference between the Leiden algorithm and the Louvain algorithm is the implementation of the local moving phase. Nat. The refined partition \({{\mathscr{P}}}_{{\rm{refined}}}\) is obtained as follows. If nothing happens, download GitHub Desktop and try again. This phenomenon can be explained by the documented tendency KMeans has to identify equal-sized , combined with the significant class imbalance associated with the datasets having more than 8 clusters (Table 1). Louvain pruning keeps track of a list of nodes that have the potential to change communities, and only revisits nodes in this list, which is much smaller than the total number of nodes. An aggregate. and L.W. An alternative quality function is the Constant Potts Model (CPM)13, which overcomes some limitations of modularity. Moreover, when no more nodes can be moved, the algorithm will aggregate the network. This represents the following graph structure. The Louvain algorithm guarantees that modularity cannot be increased by merging communities (it finds a locally optimal solution). Porter, M. A., Onnela, J.-P. & Mucha, P. J. Speed and quality for the first 10 iterations of the Louvain and the Leiden algorithm for six empirical networks. However, it is also possible to start the algorithm from a different partition15. In short, the problem of badly connected communities has important practical consequences. The above results shows that the problem of disconnected and badly connected communities is quite pervasive in practice. In the aggregation phase, an aggregate network is created based on the partition obtained in the local moving phase. Moreover, Louvain has no mechanism for fixing these communities. See the documentation on the leidenalg Python module for more information: https://leidenalg.readthedocs.io/en/latest/reference.html. 2(b). 2 represent stronger connections, while the other edges represent weaker connections. When the Leiden algorithm found that a community could be split into multiple subcommunities, we counted the community as badly connected. A score of -1 means that there are no edges connecting nodes within the community, and they instead all connect nodes outside the community. We use six empirical networks in our analysis. Article The R implementation of Leiden can be run directly on the snn igraph object in Seurat. Nevertheless, when CPM is used as the quality function, the Louvain algorithm may still find arbitrarily badly connected communities. However, values of within a range of roughly [0.0005, 0.1] all provide reasonable results, thus allowing for some, but not too much randomness. 2010. Newman, M. E. J. Resolution Limit in Community Detection. Proc. For larger networks and higher values of , Louvain is much slower than Leiden. Besides the Louvain algorithm and the Leiden algorithm (see the "Methods" section), there are several widely-used network clustering algorithms, such as the Markov clustering algorithm [], Infomap algorithm [], and label propagation algorithm [].Markov clustering and Infomap algorithm are both based on flow . Louvain community detection algorithm was originally proposed in 2008 as a fast community unfolding method for large networks. Optimising modularity is NP-hard5, and consequentially many heuristic algorithms have been proposed, such as hierarchical agglomeration6, extremal optimisation7, simulated annealing4,8 and spectral9 algorithms. Phys. Detecting communities in a network is therefore an important problem. Leiden consists of the following steps: Local moving of nodes Partition refinement Network aggregation The refinement step allows badly connected communities to be split before creating the aggregate network. However, if communities are badly connected, this may lead to incorrect attributions of shared functionality. Finding community structure in networks using the eigenvectors of matrices. For empirical networks, it may take quite some time before the Leiden algorithm reaches its first stable iteration. Leiden algorithm. The Web of Science network is the most difficult one. Raghavan, U., Albert, R. & Kumara, S. Near linear time algorithm to detect community structures in large-scale networks. Not. A Smart Local Moving Algorithm for Large-Scale Modularity-Based Community Detection. Eur. For each community in a partition that was uncovered by the Louvain algorithm, we determined whether it is internally connected or not. Class wrapper based on scanpy to use the Leiden algorithm to directly cluster your data matrix with a scikit-learn flavor. Nonlin. There is an entire Leiden package in R-cran here This should be the first preference when choosing an algorithm. E Stat. modularity) increases. As we will demonstrate in our experimental analysis, the problem occurs frequently in practice when using the Louvain algorithm. We show that this algorithm has a major defect that largely went unnoticed until now: the Louvain algorithm may yield arbitrarily badly connected communities. & Fortunato, S. Community detection algorithms: A comparative analysis. In the worst case, almost a quarter of the communities are badly connected. wrote the manuscript. The Leiden algorithm is considerably more complex than the Louvain algorithm. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. At some point, the Louvain algorithm may end up in the community structure shown in Fig. Below we offer an intuitive explanation of these properties. A new methodology for constructing a publication-level classification system of science. In addition, we prove that, when the Leiden algorithm is applied iteratively, it converges to a partition in which all subsets of all communities are locally optimally assigned. PubMed Central A community size of 50 nodes was used for the results presented below, but larger community sizes yielded qualitatively similar results. The difference in computational time is especially pronounced for larger networks, with Leiden being up to 20 times faster than Louvain in empirical networks. Work fast with our official CLI. Rev. Eng. In the previous section, we showed that the Leiden algorithm guarantees a number of properties of the partitions uncovered at different stages of the algorithm. Uniform -density means that no matter how a community is partitioned into two parts, the two parts will always be well connected to each other. Although originally defined for modularity, the Louvain algorithm can also be used to optimise other quality functions. In the most difficult case (=0.9), Louvain requires almost 2.5 days, while Leiden needs fewer than 10 minutes. http://arxiv.org/abs/1810.08473. Our analysis is based on modularity with resolution parameter =1. The algorithm is run iteratively, using the partition identified in one iteration as starting point for the next iteration.